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HERE AN ALLEGED PRIOR INCONSISTENT STATEMENT BY THE ROBBERY VICTIM, OFFERED AT TRIAL SOLELY FOR IMPEACHMENT, DID NOT RENDER THE EVIDENCE LEGALLY INSUFFICIENT; THE VICTIM WAS THE SOLE WITNESS TO TESTIFY ABOUT THE FACTS (CT APP). ​

The Court of Appeals, affirming defendant’s conviction. over a three-judge concurring opinion, determined that an alleged prior inconsistent statement made by the robbery victim, the only fact witness, offered at trial solely for impeachment, did not render the evidence legally insufficient. Neither the memorandum decision nor the concurring opinion discusses the underlying facts:

The victim, who was the sole person to testify about the facts concerning defendant’s conviction of robbery in the third degree, gave a statement to police, through an interpreter, several hours after the alleged robbery that was inconsistent on a material element of the offense with his trial testimony. That statement was introduced through the officer’s testimony at trial, solely for the purpose of impeachment. When an alleged contradictory prior statement is admitted solely for the purpose of impeachment, the rule of People v Ledwon (153 NY 10 [1897]) and People v Jackson (65 NY2d 265 [1985]) is not implicated. The evidence was legally sufficient to support the inference that defendant intended to steal property forcibly … . People v Howard, 2025 NY Slip Op 00804, CtApp 2-13-25

Practice Point: Here a prior inconsistent statement by the robbery victim, the only fact witness at trial, did not render the evidence legally insufficient.

 

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HERE THE LLC AGREEMENT, IN ACCORDANCE WITH ITS TERMS, WAS UNILATERALLY AMENDED BY DEFENDANT SUCH THAT DEFENDANT’S PRIOR CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATION TO PLAINTIFF WAS EXTINGUISHED AFTER PLAINTIFF HAD PERFORMED; ALTHOUGH HARSH, THIS OUTCOME WAS SUPPORTED BY DELAWARE LAW AND WAS AFFIRMED BY THE MAJORITY OVER A THREE-JUDGE DISSENT (CT APP). ​

The Court of Appeals, affirming the Appellate Division, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Singas, over a three-judge dissenting opinion, determined plaintiff was bound by the terms of an amended limited liability company (LLC) agreement which was unilaterally amended by defendant. The amended agreement included a merger clause which effectively nullified a prior oral agreement between plaintiff and defendant providing that defendant would buy-out plaintiff’s interest in the LLC after five years. Plaintiff had invested three million and his share of the LLC was worth over 11 million at the five-year mark:

… [T]he amended LLC agreement … contained a merger clause which states:

“This Agreement, together with the Certificate of Formation, each Subscription Agreement and all related Exhibits and Schedules, constitutes the sole and entire agreement of the parties to this Agreement with respect to the subject matter contained herein and therein, and supersedes all prior and contemporaneous understandings, agreements, representations and warranties, both written and oral, with respect to such subject matter, including the Original Agreement.” * * *

Upon his initial investment, plaintiff became bound by the original LLC agreement, including its clause dictating how its terms could be altered. Once the agreement was altered pursuant to its terms, plaintiff became bound by the amended LLC agreement, including its merger clause. Pursuant to the amended LLC agreement’s choice-of-law provision, Delaware law governs its interpretation and reach … . Under Delaware’s Limited Liability Company Act, which aims to “give the maximum effect to the principle of freedom of contract and to the enforceability of limited liability company agreements” … , a member of an LLC “is bound by the limited liability company agreement whether or not the member . . . executes the limited liability company agreement” … . Plaintiff, as a member of [the LLC], is therefore bound by its operating LLC agreement—the amended LLC agreement—regardless of whether he signed it. * * *

Though an outcome whereby one member to a contract unilaterally extinguishes his contractual obligation, even after the other party has performed, may appear “harsh,” … Delaware law “unambiguously advises prospective investors in a closely held LLC (especially one considering a multimillion-dollar investment) to scrutinize the existing LLC agreement and condition their investment upon the clear written delineation thereunder of . . . their contracted-for rights in the event of any future amendments to the LLC agreement” … . Behler v Kai-Shing Tao, 2025 NY Slip Op 00803, CtApp 2-13-25

Practice Point: Here the LLC agreement was, in accordance with its terms, unilaterally amended by defendant to extinguish a prior contractual obligation owed plaintiff after plaintiff had performed. This harsh result was supported by Delaware law, which basically says anyone entering an LLC agreement which can be unilaterally changed should think twice.

 

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THE MAJORITY AFFIRMED WITHOUT DISCUSSION; JUDGE RIVERA IN A DISSENTING OPINION JOINED BY JUDGE WILSON WOULD HAVE REVERSED ON INEFFECTIVE ASSISTANCE GROUNDS (CT APP). ​

The Court of Appeals affirmed defendant’s burglary, assault, criminal contempt and resisting arrest convictions without discussion. Judges Rivera and Wilson would have reversed on ineffective assistance grounds:

From the dissent:

Counsel’s performance here was deficient in several respects and no reasonable defense strategy explains those failings. Before trial, counsel’s boilerplate motion referenced matters not at issue and lacked factual support in several respects, evincing counsel’s failure to properly investigate defendant’s case. Counsel also failed to show defendant video crucial to the prosecution’s case until shortly before trial—and even then, only after defendant complained to the court and the court ordered counsel to provide the video. During trial, counsel’s cross-examination of the victim resulted in admission of defendant’s criminal history, even though the trial court had denied the prosecution’s request to present that same history should defendant testify. Counsel then failed to object to an obviously-ambiguous jury instruction that might have resulted in a conviction on the top count. Despite these glaring errors, the majority concludes that defendant received constitutionally-acceptable representation. This outcome ignores our precedents and reduces the right to effective counsel to a platitude spoken to appease defendants. Our State Constitution’s guarantee of effective assistance ensures the integrity of the process and a fair trial—including for those defendants who appear guilty. Counsel’s many errors fell below that standard. I would therefore reverse and order a new trial. People v Howard, 2025 NY Slip Op 00184, CtApp 1-14-25

Practice Point: Although the majority affirmed the convictions without discussion, the two-judge dissenting opinion described “glaring errors” by defense counsel in detail.

 

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PUNITIVE DAMAGES IN A DECEPTIVE BUSINESS PRACTICES ACTION PURSUANT TO GENERAL BUSINESS LAW 349 (H) ARE LIMITED TO THREE TIMES ACTUAL DAMAGES (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, affirming the Appellate Division, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Troutman, over a two-judge concurring opinion, determined the terms of the life insurance policy, which was terminated by the defendant insurer, were unambiguous and enforceable. The General Business Law section 349 (h) cause of action alleging deceptive business practices survived but any punitive damages were limited to three times actual damages. The nature of the life insurance policy and payment scheme are too complex to fairly describe here. The $2 million life insurance policy was issued to an 82-year-old woman. With respect to the available damages in a private General Business Law 349 (h) action, the court wrote:

… [T]he legislature carefully calibrated damages at the time section 349 (h) was enacted. We decline to alter that balance by making available a remedy that goes far beyond what the legislature contemplated. As evidenced by the increased penalties on similar statutes, the legislature will act where it believes current remedies are insufficient. It has not done so here. We therefore conclude that punitive damages in addition to the treble damages delineated in section 349 (h) are unavailable. Hobish v AXA Equit. Life Ins. Co., 2025 NY Slip Op 00183, CtApp 1-14-25

Practice Point: Consult this opinion for an in-depth discussion of the damages available in a private General Business Law 349 (h) deceptive-business-practices action.

 

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THE STANDARD FOR AN INTERMEDIATE APPELLATE COURT’S REVIEW OF A SENTENCE CLARIFIED (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Troutman, over a three-judge dissenting opinion, remitted the matter to the Appellate Division for a determination whether a sentence reduction is warranted using the correct standard. The defendant need not demonstrate extraordinary circumstances or an abuse of discretion by the sentencing court to warrant a review of the sentence by the intermediate appellate court:

The intermediate appellate courts are empowered to reduce a sentence that, though legal, is “unduly harsh or severe” (CPL 470.15 [6] [b]). The decisions whether a sentence warrants reduction under that standard, and the extent to which the sentence should be reduced, are committed to the discretion of the intermediate appellate court, which has “broad, plenary power” to reduce the sentence “without deference to the sentencing court” … . A defendant need not demonstrate extraordinary circumstances or abuse of discretion by the sentencing court in order to obtain a sentence reduction … . People v Brisman, 2025 NY Slip Op 00123, CtApp 1-9-25

Practice Point: The correct standard for review of a sentence in an intermediate appellate court is whether the sentence is “unduly harsh or severe.” The decision to reduce a sentence is committed to the discretion of the intermediate court without deference to the sentencing court. The defendant need not show extraordinary circumstances or an abuse of discretion by the sentencing court.

 

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THE DENIAL OF DEFENDANT’S MOTION TO SEVER THE CHARGES RELATING TO TWO SEPARATE MURDERS, COMMITTED NEARLY TWO YEARS APART, WAS NOT AN ABUSE OF DISCRETION; DEFENDANT DID NOT DEMONSTRATE THE JURY WOULD HAVE HAD DIFFICULTY CONSIDERING SEPARATELY THE PROOF FOR EACH OFFENSE (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, affirming defendant’s murder convictions, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Halligan, over two comprehensive dissenting opinions, determined the denial of defendant’s motion to sever the charges relating to two separate murders, committed nearly two years apart, was not error:

The first victim was the defendant’s roommate, who was found dead in their shared apartment in 2013 after a fire that occurred under circumstances that later raised questions about her cause of death. The second victim was a woman whom defendant had hired to go on a date with him in December 2014; her body was found in a shallow grave in May 2015. The defendant was arrested in 2017 … . * * *

Where counts have been joined under CPL 200.20 (2) (c), the CPL provides that the trial court has discretion to sever them if doing so would be “in the interest of justice and for good cause shown” (id. 200.20 [3]). This provision has its origins in a 1936 amendment to the Code of Criminal Procedure that allowed joinder of “two or more acts or transactions constituting crimes of the same or a similar character which are neither connected together nor parts of a common scheme or plan” … .

The statute specifies two situations that establish good cause: first, where there is “[s]ubstantially more proof on one or more such joinable offenses than on others and there is a substantial likelihood that the jury would be unable to consider separately the proof as it relates to each offense”; and second, where there is “[a] convincing showing that a defendant has both important testimony to give concerning one count and a genuine need to refrain from testifying on the other, which satisfies the court that the risk of prejudice is substantial” … . The statute expressly notes that good cause is not limited to these grounds … , and we have explained that “a defendant’s fundamental right to a fair trial free of undue prejudice” must be protected when offenses are joined for trial … . …

… The defendant asserts that “the jury was incapable of considering the proof separately with respect to each offense” because the proof of each crime was “markedly different” and “dissimilar.” … [But] the key question is whether it would be difficult for the jury to consider separately the proof for each offense … . People v Mero, 2024 NY Slip Op 06385, CtApp 12-19-24

Practice Point: Consult this opinion, especially the extensive dissents, for a comprehensive discussion of the issues raised by trying a defendant for two unrelated murders, separated by years, in a single trial.

 

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DEFENDANT’S CROSSING THE FOG LINE ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE HIGHWAY THREE TIMES IN SECONDS CONSTITUTED PROBABLE CAUSE FOR THE TRAFFIC STOP (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Rivera, determined there was probable cause for the traffic stop which resulted in a DWI conviction. Defendant’s car crossed the fog line on the right side of the roadway three times within seconds:

When a driver swerves over the fog line repeatedly, in quick succession, they have failed to “drive[ ] as nearly as practicable entirely within a single lane” in violation of VTL § 1128 (a) (see e.g. Schoonmaker v New York State Dept. of Motor Vehicles, 33 NY3d 926, 928 [2019] [testimony that vehicle “ma(de) an erratic movement off the right side of the road, crossing the fog line and moving off the shoulder with the vehicle’s right front tire” provided substantial evidence that stop was lawful under VTL § 1128 (a)]; People v Tandle, 71 AD3d 1176, 1177, 1178 [2d Dept 2010]; People v Parris, 26 AD3d 393, 394 [2d Dept 2006]; cf. People v Davis, 58 AD3d 896, 898 [3d Dept 2009] [police officer’s testimony that driver had made “brief contacts with the fog line,” but not that driver was, for example, “weaving, driving erratically or even that he drove onto the shoulder” was insufficient to support traffic stop under VTL § 1128 (a)]). On these facts, the troopers’ observations, which were credited by the suppression court, established probable cause for the traffic stop. Therefore, the court properly denied the motion to suppress. People v Rufus, 2024 NY Slip Op 06384, CtApp 12-19-24

Practice Point: Here defendant’s crossing the fog line on the right side of the highway three times in seconds violated the Vehicle and Traffic Law and constituted probable cause for the traffic stop.

 

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THE SO-CALLED “LUXURY DEREGULATION” PROVISION OF THE NYC RENT STABILIZATION LAW WAS REPEALED AS OF JUNE 14, 2019; APARTMENTS WITH LEASES IN EFFECT ON THE REPEAL DATE WHICH, PRIOR TO THE REPEAL, HAD BEEN ORDERED TO BECOME DEREGULATED, WERE NO LONGER ELIGIBLE FOR DEREGULATION AS OF JUNE 14, 2019 (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Troutman, determined that the NYC Division of Housing and Community Renewal (DHCR) properly interpreted a provision of the Rent Stabilization Law which repealed the so-called “luxury deregulation” of rent stabilized residences. Prior to the operative date of the repeal, June 14, 2019, landlords could deregulate apartments if the tenant’s income exceeded the statutory threshold for two years:

Our primary task on this appeal is statutory interpretation. Specifically, we are asked to determine whether the Division of Housing and Community Renewal (DHCR) properly interpreted part D of the Housing Stability and Tenant Protection Act of 2019 (HSTPA)—repealing so-called “luxury deregulation” of rent stabilized residences—as applying to apartments that, prior to the repeal, were ordered to become deregulated upon expiration of the tenants’ leases, which would not expire until after the effective date of the repeal. We answer that question in the affirmative and hold that, contrary to petitioner’s contention, DHCR’s interpretation of part D as eliminating luxury deregulation for an apartment owned by petitioner was proper and did not constitute an impermissible retroactive application. Matter of 160 E. 84th St. Assoc. LLC v New York State Div. of Hous. & Community Renewal, 2024 NY Slip Op 06377, CtApp 12-19-24

 

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A REPORT OF A ROAD DEFECT SUBMITTED THROUGH A CITY’S ONLINE REPORTING SYSTEM MAY CONSTITUTE “WRITTEN NOTICE” TRIGGERING MUNICIPAL LIABILITY FOR INJURY CAUSED BY THE DEFECT (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, in full-fledged opinion by Judge Garcia, determined there was a question of fact whether the online reporting of a road defect constituted “written notice” of the defect such that the municipality may be liable for plaintiff’s motorcycle accident. The Court noted that the plaintiff also raised a question of fact whether the city created the road defect, obviating the need for written notice, and the doctrine of sovereign immunity does not apply to the proprietary function of road repair:

Plaintiff was injured when he lost control of his motorcycle on Lark Street in the City of Albany. He brought this lawsuit claiming that the accident was caused by a road defect that the City knew about and had failed to repair. The primary issue on appeal is whether certain reports submitted to the City through an online reporting system called “SeeClickFix” (SCF) served as “written notice” of that defect and, if so, whether those reports were “actually given” to the official designated by statute to receive such notice. Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to plaintiff, based on the implementation and use of the SCF system by the City and its Department of General Services (DGS), we hold that plaintiff raised a triable issue of fact as to prior written notice to the appropriate City official. We further hold that plaintiff raised a triable issue of fact regarding the affirmative negligence exception to the prior written notice requirement, and that the City lacks governmental immunity from suit. We therefore affirm. * * *

… [A]t the time of the accident, the City’s prior written notice statute provided:

“No civil action shall be maintained against the City for damages or injuries to person or property sustained in consequence of any street . . . being defective, out of repair, unsafe, dangerous or obstructed unless, previous to the occurrence resulting in such damages or injury, written notice of the defective, unsafe, dangerous or obstructed condition of said street . . . was actually given to the Commissioner of Public Works and there was a failure or neglect within a reasonable time after the receipt of such notice to repair or remove the defect, danger or obstruction complained of” (Albany City Code former § 24-1 …). Calabrese v City of Albany, 2024 NY Slip Op 06289, CtApp 12-17-24

Practice Point: Here a report of a road defect had been submitted through an online reporting system implemented by the city. There was a question of fact whether such a report constituted “written notice” of the road defect, and whether the notice was actually given to the commissioner of public works.

 

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NYC MUST PAY CITY EMPLOYEES, RETIREES AND DEPENDENTS THE FULL COST, UP TO THE STATUTORY CAP, OF ANY HEALTH INSURANCE PLAN THE CITY OFFERS (CT APP). ​

The Court of Appeals, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Wilson, determined NYC was required to pay city employees, retirees and dependents the full cost, up to the statutory cap, of any health insurance plan the city offers:

At issue on this appeal are the portions of Administrative Code of the City of New York § 12-126 requiring New York City (“City”) to pay, for active employees, retirees and their dependents, “the entire cost of health insurance coverage,” defined as “[a] program of hospital-surgical-medical benefits,” in an amount “not to exceed one hundred percent of the full cost of H.I.P.-H.M.O. on a category basis.” The statute requires that the City’s program includes “hospital[,] surgical [and] medical benefits.” The statute also requires the City to pay the full cost of the program, so long as that cost does not exceed the comparator in the statute. The question in this case is what section 12-126 requires the City to do when it offers more than one health insurance plan to employees and retirees. Petitioners argue that section 12-126 requires the City to pay, up to the statutory cap, for any plan it offers. The City contends that its section 12-126 obligation is satisfied if it pays up to the cap for one health insurance plan providing hospital, surgical and medical benefits. It argues that it may offer additional plans but has no statutory obligation to pay any portion of their cost, and explains that when it has paid for additional plans in the past, it has done so because it agreed to in collective bargaining, not because it was statutorily required to do so. The parties also disagree as to which health insurance plan sets the statutory cap for Medicare-eligible retirees.

We hold that section 12-126 requires the City to pay up to the statutory cap for any plan it offers to employees and retirees. Matter of NYC Org. of Pub. Serv. Retirees, Inc. v Campion, 2024 NY Slip Op 06291, CtApp 12-17-24

 

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