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​ THE NEW YORK CITY ADMINSTRATIVE CODE PROVISION CRIMINALIZING THE USE OF CERTAIN RESTRAINTS WHICH RESTRICT AIR AND BLOOD FLOW IS VALID (CT APP). ​

The Court of Appeals, affirming the Appellate Division, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Garcia, determined the New York City Administrative Code provision which criminalizes the use of restraints which restrict air or blood flow is valid:

We are asked to determine whether section 10-181 of the Administrative Code of the City of New York, which makes criminal the use of certain restraints by police officers during an arrest, violates the New York Constitution on either preemption or due process grounds. Because section 10-181 does not conflict with state law or regulate in a field in which the state has expressly or impliedly precluded local legislation, it is a permissible exercise of local lawmaking authority. The language of the section also provides fair notice of the conduct prohibited and is sufficiently definite to avoid arbitrary or discriminatory enforcement and is therefore not void for vagueness.

In July 2020, New York City Administrative Code § 10-181 became law, making it a misdemeanor offense for any “person” to “restrain an individual in a manner that restricts the flow of air or blood by compressing the windpipe or the carotid arteries on each side of the neck, or sitting, kneeling, or standing on the chest or back in a manner that compresses the diaphragm, in the course of effecting or attempting to effect an arrest” (Administrative Code of City of NY § 10-181 [a], [b]).

… [T]he enactment of section 10-181 was spurred, in large part, by the widely publicized deaths of Eric Garner and George Floyd following the use of force by police officers during their arrests … . Police Benevolent Assn. of the City of New York, Inc. v City of New York, 2023 NY Slip Op 05960, CtApp 11-21-23

Practice Point: A NYC Administrative Code provision criminalizing restraints which restrict blood or air flow is valid and enforceable.

 

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THE LOCAL LAW CREATING THE POLICE ACCOUNTABILITY BOARD (PAB) WITH THE POWER TO DISCIPLINE POLICE OFFICERS CONFLICTED WITH THE POLICE UNION’S COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AGREEMENT (CBA); BECAUSE THE UNION NEVER AGREED TO THE TRANSFER OF DISCIPLINARY POWERS TO THE PAB, THE LOCAL LAW WAS INVALID (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Egan, affirming the Appellate Division, over a three-judge dissent, determined the Local Law creating a Police Accountability Board (PAB) with the power to discipline police officers was invalid because the law conflicted with the union’s (the Locust Club’s)  collective bargaining agreement (CBA) and the union had never agreed to the change:

Since the 1980s, the collective bargaining agreement (hereinafter CBA) in place between the City of Rochester and the Rochester Police Locust Club, Inc. (hereinafter the Locust Club), the union representing police officers in the City, has governed the procedure for disciplining police officers. In 2019, the Council of the City of Rochester adopted, the Mayor of the City of Rochester signed, and voters approved via referendum, Local Law No. 2, which created the Police Accountability Board (hereinafter PAB), a body of nine City residents whose powers included the exclusive authority to “investigate and make determinations respecting” any police officer accused of misconduct. That authority included the power to conduct a hearing on the alleged misconduct and to impose disciplinary sanctions, up to and including dismissal, if the officer were found guilty. The City’s police chief was free to impose additional punishment upon that officer, but was obliged at a minimum to implement the sanction determined by the PAB.

There is no dispute that the disciplinary procedures set forth in Local Law No. 2 deviated in significant respects from the agreed-upon procedures set forth in the CBA then in effect and that they were not agreed to by the Locust Club. The Locust Club and others commenced this combined CPLR article 78 proceeding and declaratory judgment action to challenge Local Law No. 2 and, in particular, its transfer of police disciplinary authority to the PAB. Supreme Court ultimately granted the petition in part and held, among other things, that Local Law No. 2 was invalid to the extent that it transferred that authority. Upon the City Council’s appeal, the Appellate Division affirmed … . The Appellate Division held that the City was obliged to negotiate with the Locust Club on the issue of police discipline because in 1985 it had repealed the provision of its charter vesting a local official in charge of the police force with unilateral authority over police discipline and that the City’s effort to revive that authority in Local Law No. 2 necessarily failed under the Municipal Home Rule Law because it was inconsistent with a general law, namely, “the Taylor Law’s mandate of collective bargaining for police discipline” … .  Matter of Rochester Police Locust Club, Inc. v City of Rochester, 2023 NY Slip Op 05959, CtApp 11-21-23

Practice Point: The Local Law creating the Police Accountability Board (PAB) and granting the PAB the power to discipline police officers conflicted with disciplinary provisions in the police union’s collective bargaining agreement (CBA). Because the union never agreed to the transfer of disciplinary powers to the PAB, the Local Law was deemed invalid.

 

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PLAINTIFFS ALLEGED THE TOWN NEGLIGENTLY MAINTAINED A SEWER MAIN CAUSING SEWAGE TO BACKFLOW INTO PLAINTIFFS’ HOME; AN INTENTIONAL ENTRY IS ONE OF THE ELEMENTS OF TRESPASS; THEREFORE THE TRESPASS CAUSE OF ACTION SHOULD HAVE BEEN DISMISSED (FOURTH DEPT).

The Fourth Department, reversing (modifying) Supreme Court, determined the complaint which alleged the town negligently failed to maintain a sewer main causing sewage to backflow into plaintiffs’ home did not state a cause of action for trespass, which requires an intentional act:

Among other elements, a claim for trespass requires “an intentional entry” … . Intent, in this context, “is defined as intending the act which produces the unlawful intrusion, where the intrusion is an immediate or inevitable consequence of that act” … . Here, accepting the allegations in the amended complaint as true … , we conclude that the amended complaint does not state a cause of action for trespass inasmuch as it failed to allege an intentional entry onto plaintiffs’ property … .  Drake v Village of Lima, 2023 NY Slip Op 05833, Fourth Dept 11-17-23

Practice Point: Here the trespass cause of action was based upon the backflow of sewage into plaintiffs’ home allegedly caused by the negligent maintenance of a sewer main. Trespass requires an “Intentional entry” which was not alleged here.

 

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THE TOWN ZONING BOARD SHOULD NOT HAVE INTERPRETED THE TERM “SINGLE FAMILY DWELLINGS” SUCH THAT SHORT TERM RENTALS WERE PROHIBITED BECAUSE TRANSIENT TENANTS DO NOT MEET THE DEFINITION OF “FAMILY” (FOURTH DEPT).

The Fourth Department, reversing Supreme Court and annulling the zoning board’s (ZBA’s) ruling, determined the term “single family dwellings” should not have been interpreted to prohibit short-term rentals. The ZBA reasoned that short-term, transient tenants do not meet the definition of “family:”

“[L]ocal zoning boards have broad discretion, and [a] determination of a zoning board should be sustained on judicial review if it has a rational basis and is supported by substantial evidence” … . So long as a zoning board’s interpretation of its governing code “is neither ‘irrational, unreasonable nor inconsistent with the governing [code],’ it will be upheld” … . However, where, as here, the issue presented “is one of pure legal interpretation of [the code’s] terms, deference to the zoning board is not required” … . * * *

… [U]nder the Zoning Ordinance, the transient or temporary nature of a group is but one factor that “may” be considered to determine whether four or more persons who are not related by blood, marriage, or adoption are the “functional equivalent” of a “traditional family.” … [I]f petitioner rented her property to three or fewer persons, or to four or more persons who are related by blood, marriage, or adoption, those groups would meet the Zoning Ordinance’s definition of a “[f]amily” without regard to whether their tenancy was transient or temporary in nature. The ZBA’s determination to the contrary lacked a rational basis … , and the court erred in sustaining the determination. Matter of Friedman v Town of Dunkirk, 2023 NY Slip Op 05912, Fourth Dept 11-17-23

Practice Point: Where a zoning board purports to make a pure legal interpretation of terms used in the zoning code, a court’s deference to the zoning board is not required.

Practice Point: Here the zoning board’s interpretation of the term “family” within the phrase “single family residences” to exclude short-term rentals to transient tenants was irrational.

 

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ALTHOUGH DEFENDANT, A DOCTOR, USED A PORTION OF THE TWO-FAMILY HOUSE AS A STUDY OR HOME OFFICE, THE EXCLUSION OF OWNER-OCCUPIED TWO-FAMILY RESIDENCES FROM LIABILITY FOR SIDEWALK DEFECTS APPLIED; DEFENDANT WAS ENTITLED TO SUMMARY JUDGMENT IN THIS SIDEWALK SLIP AND FALL CASE (SECOND DEPT). ​

The Second Department, reversing Supreme Court, determined defendant in this sidewalk slip and fall case was entitled to summary judgment pursuant to the exclusion of one, two, and three- family residences from liability for sidewalk defects. Although defendant was a doctor and used space in the basement as a study, the residential character of the building was controlling:

Administrative Code of the City of New York § 7-210, which became effective September 14, 2003, shifted tort liability for injuries arising from a defective sidewalk from the City to the abutting property owner … . “However, this liability-shifting provision does not apply to ‘one-, two- or three-family residential real property that is (i) in whole or in part, owner occupied, and (ii) used exclusively for residential purposes'” … . …

… [T]he defendant established … that the premises abutting the public sidewalk was a two-family, owner-occupied residence, and thus, that she is entitled to the exemption from liability for owner-occupied residential property. Contrary to the Supreme Court’s determination, the defendant’s partial use of the basement as an office space was merely incidental to her residential use of the property … . While the defendant testified at her deposition that she was a doctor and used a portion of the basement apartment as a study or home office and that it held office equipment, no evidence indicated that she used the space with regularity or that she claimed the premises as her business address or as a tax deduction. McCalla v Piris-Fraser, 2023 NY Slip Op 05722, Second Dept 11-15-23

Practice Point: Here the owner of the two-family residence abutting the sidewalk where plaintiff slipped and fell was a doctor who had a study or home office in the basement. The home office or study did not transform the property to a business and the doctor was entitled to the “owner-occupied, two-family-residence” exclusion from liability in the NYC Administrative Code re: sidewalk defects.

 

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THE EVIDENCE PRESENTED IN SUPPORT OF THE DEFENDANT TOWN’S AND POLICE-OFFICER’S MOTION FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT WAS UNEQUIVOCAL AND DEMONSTRATED THE OFFICERS DID NOT VIOLATE THE “RECKLESS DISREGARD” STANDARD WHEN PURSUING PLAINTIFF MOTORCYCLIST, WHO CRASHED AND WAS SERIOUSLY INJURED; THERE WAS NO INDICATION FURTHER DISCOVERY WOULD UNCOVER ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE; THE MOTION SHOULD NOT HAVE BEEN DENIED AS PREMATURE (SECOND DEPT). ​

The Second Department, reversing Supreme Court, determined the town and police–officer defendants were entitled to summary judgment in this motorcycle-accident case. The plaintiff motorcyclist (Ronnie) was speeding when the defendant officers attempted to follow him with their emergency lights on. Both officers pulled back because of the plaintiff’s speed, losing sight of plaintiff. The officers came upon plaintiff in the woods after he had crashed. Supreme Court ruled that the defendants had demonstrated entitlement to summary judgment but found that the summary judgment motion was premature and should await further discovery. The Second Department held the motion was not premature because there was no indication additional evidence would be uncovered:

… [T]he defendants’ motion was not premature. The plaintiff “failed to offer an evidentiary basis to suggest that additional discovery may lead to relevant evidence, or that facts essential to opposing the motion were exclusively within the knowledge and control of the [defendants]” … . Here, the officers directly involved in the attempt to stop Ronnie provided sworn affidavits, which were unequivocal and consistent with the other evidence in the case. There is no basis to conclude that depositions or other discovery would render a different account of the accident. The plaintiff’s mere hope or speculation that discovery would render evidence sufficient to defeat the defendants’ motion was not a sufficient basis to deny the motion … . Rojas v Town of Tuxedo, 2023 NY Slip Op 05751, Second Dept 11-15-23

Practice Point: Where the evidence supports summary judgment and there is no indication further discovery will uncover additional evidence, the summary judgment motion should not be denied as “premature.”

 

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THE FOIL REQUEST FOR THE NUMBER AND LOCATION OF LICENSE PLATE READERS (LPR’S) SHOULD HAVE BEEN GRANTED (SECOND DEPT).

The Second Department, reversing Supreme Court, over a dissent, determined the FOIL request for the location of license plate readers (LPR’s) should have been granted. The majority decision and the dissent include comprehensive discussions of the relevant caselaw which are far too extensive to fairly summarize here:

In light of the presumption of accessability and the narrow interpretation we are required to apply to a claimed exemption, under the circumstances of this case, we find that the respondents failed to sustain their burden of proving that the law enforcement records exemption pursuant to Public Officers Law § 87(2)(e)(iv) applied to the records pertaining to the number and location of the LPRs sought by the petitioner’s request … . Matter of Lane v Port Wash. Police Dist., 2023 NY Slip Op 05605, Second Dept 11-8-23

Practice Point: Here the majority’s and dissent’s discussion of FOIL request for the number and location of license plate readers (LPR’s), which the majority held should have been granted, includes a comprehensive discussion of the relevant caselaw.

 

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THE AVAILABILTY OF GOVERNMENT RECORDS ON A PUBLIC WEBSITE DOES NOT SATISFY A FOIL REQUEST; HERE THERE WERE QUESTIONS OF FACT WHETHER THE VILLAGE SHOULD HAVE WORKED WITH THE PETITIONER TO IDENTIFY THE REQUESTED DOCUMENTS (SECOND DEPT).

The Second Department, reversing Supreme Court, in a comprehensive full-fledged opinion by Justice Iannacci, determined the article 78 petition seeking to compel the village to release documents about recusals and conflict-of-interests disclosures by village officials should not have been dismissed. The availability of government records on a public website was deemed insufficient to satisfy a FOIL request. There were questions of fact about whether the requested documents were sufficiently described:

The principal questions presented on appeal are whether the requested records were “reasonably described” (… [Public Officers Law] § 89[3][a]) so as to allow the Village to locate and identify them, and whether the Village satisfied its obligations under FOIL by maintaining a public website, on which much of the information sought by the petitioner could be found. We hold that the mere availability of government records on a public website is insufficient to satisfy a request under FOIL for reproduction of such materials. However, we further conclude that questions of fact exist as to the Village’s ability to locate, identify, and produce the records requested by the petitioner, thereby precluding summary determination of the petition. * * *

… [T]here is no evidence that, before denying the petitioner’s request in its entirety, the Village made any effort to work with her to more precisely define the information desired … , if possible, or to “attempt to reasonably reduce the volume of the records requested” … . * * *

Holding that an agency satisfies a FOIL request for reproduction of records merely by referring the requestor to a public website does not adequately safeguard the public right of all of this State’s citizens. Matter of Goldstein v Incorporated Vil. of Mamaroneck, 2023 NY Slip Op 05500, Second Dept 11-1-23

Practice Point: The availability of government records on a government website does not satisfy a FOIL request for documents.

Practice Point: The municipality may have an obligation to work with the party making a FOIL request to identify the requested documents.

 

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THE QUESTIONNAIRES FILLED OUT BY APPLICANTS FOR CITY JUDICIAL POSITIONS WERE PROTECTED FROM THE FOIL REQUEST BY THE PERSONAL PRIVACY EXEMPTION; AN APPELLATE COURT DOES NOT HAVE THE AUTHORITY TO CONSIDER AN UNPRESERVED ISSUE IN AN ARTICLE 78 PROCEEDING (FIRST DEPT).

The First Department, reversing Supreme Court, determined judicial questionnaires filled out by applicants for city judicial positions were protected from the FOIL request by the personal privacy exemption. The First Department noted that it did not have the authority in an article 78 proceeding to consider an unpreserved issue in the interest of justice:

… [T]he City properly applied the personal privacy exemption (Public Officer’s Law § 89[2][a]) to deny petitioner’s FOIL request in its entirety, as the City sustained its burden of establishing that disclosure of the records sought in this case — “all Uniform Judicial Questionnaires for applicants . . . under review by the Mayor’s Advisory Committee on the Judiciary” as of October 21, 2020 — would “constitute an unwarranted invasion of personal privacy” (Public Officers Law § 87[2][b] …). Disclosure of the questionnaire, which states the word “CONFIDENTIAL” in upper-case letters and boldface near the top of its first page, would undermine the assurances of confidentiality provided to candidates for judicial office … .

Moreover, disclosure would create a chilling effect, thus potentially diminishing the candor of applicants and causing others to decide against applying for judicial positions. The questionnaire contains extensive questions touching on highly personal and sensitive matters, such as personal relationships, reasons for leaving jobs, reasons for periods of unemployment, substance abuse, arrests, criminal convictions, testifying as a witness in criminal cases, and reasons for anticipated difficulty in handling the stresses involved in being a judge, as well as a catch-all question at the end of the questionnaire asking for any other information, specifically including unfavorable information, that could bear on the evaluation of the judicial candidate. In addition to the particular contents of the questionnaires, disclosure of the very fact that certain candidates submitted the questionnaires could harm those persons’ reputations by revealing that they sought to leave their jobs, or were unsuccessful in their applications for judicial positions … . Matter of Fisher v City of N.Y. Off. of the Mayor, 2023 NY Slip Op 05468, First Dept 10-31-23

Practice Point: Here the questionnaires filled out by applicants for city judicial positions were protected from the FOIL request by the personal privacy exemption.

Practice Point: In an article 78 proceeding an appellate court cannot consider an unpreserved issue in the interest of justice.

 

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DECEDENT’S SON’S ACTION AGAINST THE COUNTY COMMISSIONER OF SOCIAL SERVICES RE: MEDICAID REIMBURSEMENT FOR DECEDENT’S NURSING-HOME CARE WAS CONTRACTUAL IN NATURE; NO NOTICE OF CLAIM WAS REQUIRED; THERE ARE QUESTIONS OF FACT ABOUT WHETHER THE TRANSFER OF FATHER’S ASSETS TO SON FOR LESS THAN MARKET VALUE WAS FOR PURPOSES OTHER THAN MEDICAID PLANNING (THIRD DEPT).

The Third Department, reversing Supreme Court, determined no notice of claim was required for decedent’s son’s action against the Rensselaer County Commissioner of Social Services and there was a question of fact whether the transfer of decedent’s assets to decedent’s son was in anticipation of nursing home costs. The action against the county sounded in contract, not tort, and therefore there was no “notice of claim” requirement. It was not clear whether decedent’s need for nursing-home care was anticipated and whether there were reasons for the transfer of assets at less than market value unrelated to Medicaid planning. The county was seeking $178,084,47 for decedent’s nursing-home care, the alleged fair market value of the assets transferred to decedent’s son during the 60-month Medicaid look-back period:

… County Law § 52 — indisputably still rooted in tort-like claims — does not extend so far as to encompass claims that are contractual in nature … . * * *

Mindful that this is a plenary action, rather than a proceeding in which our review of an administrative determination is circumscribed, the Commissioner’s own submissions raise material issues of fact as to whether the subject transfers, or some portion thereof, were exclusively for a purpose other than Medicaid planning, necessitating denial of her motion regardless of the sufficiency of the opposing papers … . RSRNC, LLC v Wilson, 2023 NY Slip Op 05432, Third Dept 10-26-23

Practice Point: Actions against a county which are based in contract, not tort, do not trigger the notice-of-claim requirement.

Practice Point: Transfers of assets for less than market value are not necessarily subject to the 60-month look-back for Medicaid nursing-home-costs reimbursement. Here there were questions of fact whether nursing-home care was anticipated at the time of the transfer and whether the transfer was made for legitimate purposes unrelated to Medicaid planning.

 

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