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THE STATUTE OF LIMITATIONS FOR DECLARATORY JUDGMENTS DEPENDS ON THE UNDERLYING THEORY, FRAUD IN THIS CASE; AN AGREEMENT TO ASSIGN OR OBTAIN A MORTGAGE IS A CONTRACT INVOLVING AN INTEREST IN REAL PROPERTY AND IS SUBJECT TO THE STATUTE-OF-FRAUDS WRITING-REQUIREMENT (SECOND DEPT).

The Second Department, reversing (modifying) Supreme Court, determined that certain causes of action in this dispute over ownership of real property should have been dismissed as time-barred or as violative of the statute of frauds:

“Actions for declaratory judgments are not ascribed a certain limitations period. The nature of the relief sought in a declaratory judgment action dictates the applicable limitations period” … . The statute of limitations for an action based upon fraud generally is six years from the date the cause of action accrued (see CPLR 213[8]). … [T]he first and second causes of action were untimely, as the amended complaint alleged that [defendant’s] fraud in obtaining those interests occurred more than six years before the commencement of this action … .

… Causes of action to impose a constructive trust upon real property and to recover damages for unjust enrichment are governed by a six-year statute of limitations, which begins to accrue at the time of the wrongful act giving rise to the duty of restitution … . … [Defendant’s] alleged fraudulent acquisition of ownership interests … occurred more than six years before the commencement of this action.

… The statute of frauds requires any contract transferring or creating an interest in real property to be in writing (see General Obligations Law § 5-703[1] …). Here, [the] … complaint alleged [defendants] breached their agreements to assign or obtain a mortgage in favor of the plaintiffs. A mortgage constitutes an interest in real property, and the agreements to transfer or obtain mortgages in favor of the plaintiffs, therefore, were required to be in writing. Hersko v Hersko, 2026 NY Slip Op 00120, Second Dept 1-14-26

Practice Point: The statute of limitations for a declaratory judgment is that which applies to the underlying theory. Here the six-year statute for fraud applied.​

Practice Point: An agreement to assign or obtain a mortgage is subject to the statute-of-frauds because a mortgage constitutes an interest in real property.

 

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THE INCIDENT IN WHICH PLAINTIFF WAS INJURED BY BROKEN GLASS IN A DOOR WAS CAPTURED ON VIDEO WHICH WAS NEGLIGENTLY ERASED; PLANTIFF ALLEGED THE GLASS BROKE WHEN PLAINTIFF PULLED ON THE DOOR; AN EMPLOYEE OF THE BUILDING’S SECURITY COMPANY WHO SAW THE VIDEO CLAIMED PLAINTIFF PUNCHED THE GLASS; PRECLUSION OF TESTIMONY ABOUT THE CONTENTS OF THE VIDEO WAS TOO SEVERE A SANCTION FOR SPOLIATION; PLAINTIFF WAS ENTITLED TO AN ADVERSE INFERENCE JURY INSTRUCTION (SECOND DEPT).

The Second Department, reversing (modifying) Supreme Court, over a two-justice concurrence, determined the video showing plaintiff’s injury from broken glass in a door was negligently, not intentionally, erased. Therefore the proper sanction was an adverse inference charge, not the preclusion of any evidence about the contents of the video. Plaintiff alleged the glass broke when plaintiff pulled on the door. Williams, an employee of the building-security company who viewed the video, claimed plaintiff punched the glass:

… [P]laintiff showed that the defendants had an obligation to preserve the video surveillance footage of the incident at the time that the footage was destroyed. Williams learned that the glass in the door was broken the same day that the incident occurred, and she investigated and documented it. Furthermore, the defendants’ site manager testified at a deposition that the plaintiff’s mother called after the incident to report that the plaintiff’s arm had gone through the glass in the door, causing “severe injury,” and that he was in the hospital. After receiving this report, the site manager testified, she spoke with Williams and learned that Williams had viewed video surveillance footage depicting the incident and had created an incident report. “Given the nature of the plaintiff’s injuries and the immediate documentation and investigation into the accident by the defendants’ employee[ ], the defendants were on notice of possible litigation and thus under an obligation to preserve any evidence that might be needed for future litigation” … . * * *

Supreme Court improvidently exercised its discretion in precluding the defendants from presenting any evidence regarding Williams’s observations of the video surveillance footage, as this sanction disproportionately eliminated their defense to this action. Instead, under the circumstances, including the negligent, rather than intentional, destruction of the video surveillance footage and the degree of prejudice to the plaintiff, the court should have directed that an adverse inference charge be given against the defendants at trial with respect to the video surveillance footage of the incident … . Battle v Fulton Park Site 4 Houses, Inc., 2026 NY Slip Op 00114, Second Dept 1-14-26

Practice Point: Here preclusion of testimony about the contents of a negligently (not intentionally) erased video which depicted the incident was deemed too severe a spoliation sanction because preclusion eliminated the only defense to the action. An adverse inference charge was deemed the appropriate sanction.

 

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HERE AN INDEPENDENT CLEANING CONTRACTOR APPARENTLY CREATED A DANGEROUS FLOOR CONDITION WHICH INJURED PLAINTIFF; ALTHOUGH THE COMPANY WHICH HIRED THE INDEPENDENT CONTRACTOR WAS NOT LIABLE FOR THE INDEPENDENT CONTRACTOR’S NEGLIGENCE, MARSHALLS, THE RETAIL STORE WHERE THE INJURY OCCURRED, COULD BE VICARIOUSLY LIABLE FOR THE INDEPENDENT CONTRACTOR’S NEGLIGENCE BECAUSE MARSHALLS HAS A NONDELGABLE DUTY TO KEEP THE PUBLIC AREAS OF ITS STORE SAFE; WHETEHER MARSHALLS HAD NOTICE OF THE DANGEROUS CONDITION IS NOT AN ISSUE WHERE VICARIOUS LIABILITY MAY APPLY (FIRST DEPT).

The First Department noted that Marshall’s had a nondelegable duty to keep the public area of its store safe. The underlying fact of the case are not described but plaintiff was apparently injured because of the negligence of defendant cleaning subcontractor. The defendant which hired the subcontractor was not liable because the subcontractor was retained as an independent contractor. But the store was liable for the subcontractor’s negligence based upon its nondelegable duty to keep public areas safe (notice of the dangerous condition is not an issue):

The general rule is that a party who retains an independent contractor is not liable for that contractor’s negligent acts … . The record establishes that neither USM [the company which hired the independent contractor] nor Marshalls exercised control over how [the independent contractor] performed its cleaning tasks at the Marshalls store where plaintiff was injured, and that USM was not even present at the location at the time of the accident. * * *

… [T]he court should not have granted summary judgment dismissing the complaint as against Marshalls, which had a nondelegable duty to maintain the public area of its store in a reasonably safe condition. Therefore, Marshalls can be held vicariously liable for any negligence on the part of the subcontractor that caused the floor to become unsafe … . In light of the foregoing, we find it unnecessary to consider whether Marshalls established lack of notice of the hazardous condition. Jones v Marshalls, 2026 NY Slip Op 00087, First Dept 1-13-26

Practice Point: Here a retail store, Marshall’s could be vicariously liable for a slip and fall caused by the negligence of an independent cleaning contractor. The store has a nondelegable duty to keep its public areas safe. The question whether Marshall’s had notice of the dangerous condition is irrelevant where liability is vicarious. [Why is a retail store’s notice of the dangerous condition a crucial issue where no independent contractor is involved, but irrelevant when the cleaning is done by an independent contractor?]

 

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PROVIDING COUNSEL WITH “MEANINGFUL NOTICE” OF THE CONTENTS OF A NOTE FROM THE JURY DOES NOT NECESSARILY REQUIRE READING THE NOTE INTO THE RECORD VERBATIM; THERE WAS A TWO-JUSTICE DISSENT (FIRST DEPT).

The First Department, affirming the convictions, over a two-justice dissent. determined the judge did not commit a mode of proceedings error when responding to two notes from the jury. The dissenters argued the notes should have been read into the record “verbatim:”

In People v O’Rama (78 NY2d 270 [1991]), the Court of Appeals in addressing the “notice” requirement contained in CPL 310.30, held that “notice” means “meaningful” notice to counsel of the “actual specific content of the jurors’ request” … . * * *

O’Rama suggested that upon receipt of a written jury request, the note should be marked as a jury exhibit before the jury is recalled into the courtroom and read into the record in the presence of counsel. After the contents are placed on the record, counsel should be afforded a full opportunity to suggest appropriate responses. Finally, the court should read the communication in open court in the presence of counsel, the defendant and the jury … . However, failure to strictly follow this suggested procedure does not always result in a violation of the notice requirements of CPL 310.30 or rise to the level of a mode of proceedings error, as the designation of a mode of proceedings error is “reserved for the most fundamental flaws. The error must go to the essential validity of the process and be so fundamental that the entire trial is irreparably tainted” … . * * *

… [S]trict adherence to the “best practice” procedure suggested in O’Rama is not required so long as the fundamental purpose of CPL 310.30 is achieved, which is providing counsel with meaningful notice of the contents of a jury note so that counsel has an opportunity to provide meaningful input to the court’s response. People v Vilella, 2026 NY Slip Op 00097, First Dept 1-13-26

Practice Point: The majority held that providing counsel with “meaningful notice” of the contents of a jury not did not require reading the note into the record verbatim. There was a two-justice dissent.

 

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THE NYC ZONING RESOLUTION WHICH ALLOWS “JOINT LIVING-WORK QUARTERS FOR ARTISTS” TO BE CONVERTED TO UNRESTRICTED RESIDENTIAL USE UPON PAYMENT OF A $100 PER-SQUARE-FOOT FEE DOES NOT VIOLATE THE “TAKINGS CLAUSE” OF THE US CONSTITUTION (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, reversing the Appellate Division, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Rivera, over a concurrence and a dissent. determined that a New York City Zoning Resolution which allows “Joint Living-Work Quarters for Artists” units in SoHo and NoHo to be converted to unrestricted residential use upon payment of $100 per square foot did not violate the Takings Clause in the Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution. The 1971 “Joint Living-Work Quarters for Artists” (JLWQA) designation allowed certified artists to affordably reside and work in buildings formally used for manufacturing which were not zoned for residential use. Over the decades the areas have been gentrified and became predominately occupied by non-artists. The challenged 2021 zoning resolution essentially allows any JLWQA unit to be converted to unrestricted residential unit by paying a fee. The petitioners argued the fee violates the Takings Clause:

We conclude that petitioners do not have a compensable property interest within the meaning of the Takings Clause, as the United States Supreme Court has interpreted it, and that the fee therefore does not constitute a taking. The Takings Clause protects property owners against exploitative governmental conduct that seeks to take property without paying for it … . The newly granted opportunity to transform the essential nature of a restricted JLWQA unit into a different, unrestricted interest is not in itself a property interest. Rather, it is the restricted JLWQA unit itself, and the concomitant bundle of property rights resulting from the City’s designation as such, that constitutes the property that the government cannot take without just compensation. The creation of an optional pathway to convert to unrestricted residential use upon payment of the fee has not extinguished or diminished petitioners’ property rights in their JLWQA units. The City gains no interest in the units upon conversion, and even if petitioners held a constitutionally protected property interest in converting their property, the rezoning plan does not subject petitioners to any governmental coercion to transfer property that they would otherwise retain.

Furthermore, a typical Takings Clause case involves the government’s physical acquisition or use of private land without compensation, or its monetary exaction from a property owner in lieu of a transfer of their private property interest. By contrast, a standalone monetary fee such as the one in this case does not implicate the Takings Clause merely because it is levied upon a property owner. Matter of Coalition for Fairness in Soho & Noho, Inc. v City of New York, 2026 NY Slip Op 00076, CtApp 1-13-26

 

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ALTHOUGH THE JUDGE DID NOT COMMIT TO CONCURRENT SENTENCES, THE PLEA AGREEMENT CONTEMPLATED CONCURRENT SENTENCES AND THE JUDGE’S STATEMENTS CREATED CONFUSION ON THE ISSUE; IN THE INTEREST OF JUSTICE, AND TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE CONTENTS OF THE PRESENTENCE REPORT, THE CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES WERE VACATED AND CONCURRENT SENTENCES WERE IMPOSED (THIRD DEPT).

The Third Department, directing that defendant’s sentences be served concurrently, not consecutively, determined that the plea agreement contemplated the imposition of concurrent sentences and the judge’s confusing and ambiguous language in the plea colloquy warranted modification of the sentence:

We recognize that the imposition of consecutive sentences was authorized under Penal Law § 70.25 (2) … , and that County Court did not make any express sentencing commitment to defendant. However, the plea agreement contemplated the imposition of concurrent sentences, County Court stated during the plea proceedings that the maximum term of imprisonment defendant faced on a class C violent felony was 15 years, and the court used confusing and ambiguous language during the plea colloquy regarding the possibility of consecutive sentencing … . In light of the confusion, defendant seeks vacatur of his plea or modification of the sentence to reflect a concurrent sentence. On this record, and after accounting for the circumstances set forth in the PSR, we find that the imposition of concurrent sentences is appropriate and modify the judgment accordingly … . People v Bonville, 2026 NY Slip Op 00039, Third Dept 1-8-25

Practice Point: Here it is possible the defendant entered the plea agreement with the understanding that the sentences would run concurrently. Although the judge did not commit to concurrent sentences, the judge’s statements on the issue were confusing and ambiguous. The Third Department, in the interest of justice, after reviewing the presentence report, imposed concurrent sentences.

 

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FOR THE FIRST TIME IN NEW YORK, COUNSEL WAS SANCTIONED IN THE AMOUNT OF $5000 FOR SUBMITTING AI-GENERATED BRIEFS CITING 23 “FAKE” DECISIONS; IN ADDITION, COUNSEL AND HIS CLIENT WERE EACH SANCTIONED IN THE AMOUNT OF $2500 FOR FILING A FRIVOLOUS APPEAL (THIRD DEPT). ​

The Third Department, in a full-fledged opinion by Justice Fisher, in a matter of first impression, determined (1) counsel for the defendant in this foreclosure action should be sanctioned for submitting appellate briefs generated by AI which cited 23 “fake” appellate decisions, and (2) counsel for the defendant and the defendant should be sanctioned for filing a frivolous appeal: Defendant’s counsel was sanctioned in the amount of $5000 for the AI generated briefs and $2500 for the frivolous appeal. Defendant was sanctioned in the amount of $2500 for the frivolous appeal:

… [R]ecognizing this as the first appellate-level case in New York addressing sanctions for the misuse of GenAI, we find the imposition of a monetary sanction on defense counsel Joshua A. Douglass in the amount of $5,000 to be appropriate under the circumstances, with the further goal of deterring future frivolous conduct by defendant and the bar at large … . To be clear, attorneys and litigants are not prohibited from using GenAI to assist with the preparation of court submissions. The issue arises when attorneys and staff are not sufficiently trained on the dangers of such technology, and instead erroneously rely on it without human oversight. As with the work from a paralegal, intern or another attorney, the use of GenAI in no way abrogates an attorney’s or litigant’s obligation to fact check and cite check every document filed with a court. To do otherwise may be sanctionable, depending on the facts and particular circumstances of each case. * * *

Although defense counsel signed the papers filed with this Court …, it is … not unnoticed that the metadata of numerous documents indicate they originated from a program in his client’s name. Such result would be consistent with defendant filing papers pro se before Supreme Court, and defense counsel’s apparent unfamiliarity during oral argument with certain papers he allegedly filed during the pendency of this appeal. Given the baseless nature of this appeal, and recognizing that sanctions must be goal oriented to deter future conduct to prevent the waste of judicial resources and continued vexatious litigation of specific individuals too … , we conclude that an additional sanction of $2,500 shall be imposed on defense counsel … and $2,500 shall be imposed on defendant … for pursing this appeal. Deutsche Bank Natl. Trust Co. v LeTennier, 2026 NY Slip Op 00040, Third Dept 1-8-25

Practice Point: For the first time in New York an attorney was sanctioned for submitting AI-generated briefs which cited “fake” decisions.

Practice Point: Here both counsel and his client were sanctioned for filing a frivolous appeal. It was clear that the client played a role in creating the AI-generated briefs.

 

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THE DISMISSAL OF PLAINTIFF’S FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION (RETALIATION) ACTION PURSUANT TO THE NEW YORK STATE HUMAN RIGHTS LAW PRECLUDED A RELITIGATION OF THE RETALIATION CLAIMS IN STATE COURT PURSUANT TO THE NEW YORK CITY HUMAN RIGHTS LAW (FIRST DEPT).

The First Department, in a full-fledged opinion by Justice Shulman, determined plaintiff’s employment discrimination (retaliation) cause of action pursuant to the New York City Human Rights Law (NYCHRL) was collaterally estopped by the dismissal of plaintiff’s action in federal court pursuant to the New York State Human Rights Law (NYSHRL):

Plaintiff asserts that his cooperation in [an] investigation [of another employee] provoked animus from his supervisors … who allegedly retaliated by reducing his business opportunities and ultimately terminating him.

Plaintiff alleged seven discrete adverse employment actions: (1) the artificial depression of his revenue; (2) denial of his request to transfer to a new position; (3) reassignment of his clients; (4) denial of funding to attend conferences; (5) a negative performance review; (6) no bonus in 2015; and (7) termination in August 2016. * * *

The City HRL is “uniquely broad and remedial,” requiring courts to construe its provisions “independently from similar or identical provisions of New York state or federal statutes” … . However, the requirement to interpret the City HRL under a more liberal lens does not relieve plaintiff of his burden to produce evidence of a retaliatory motive behind the adverse actions.

* * * Plaintiff’s arguments … invite relitigating facts already adjudicated by two federal courts after full and fair litigation. The federal courts expressly found no retaliatory animus after reviewing extensive evidence. … [T]his compels preclusion.

We emphasize that the City HRL’s liberal construction rule lowers the causation threshold, not the evidentiary one. Once the federal record established the absence of any retaliatory motive, no genuine factual issue remained even under the City HRL’s mixed-motive framework. To allow this case to go to a jury under the guise of liberal construction finds no support in the record. Abromavage v Deutsche Bank Sec. Inc., 2026 NY Slip Op 00052, First Dept 1-8-25

Practice Point: Here the federal courts’ dismissal of plaintiff’s employment discrimination (retaliation) claims pursuant to the New York State Human Rights Law (NYSHRL) precluded relitigation of those claims in state court pursuant to the New York City Human Rights Law (NYCHRL). Consult this opinion for insight into when collateral estoppel will be invoked to preclude a state action under the NYCHRL which raises retaliation claims identical to those dismissed by the federal courts under the NYSHRL. Although the NYCHRL lowers the causation threshold in comparison with the NYSHRL, it does not lower the evidentiary threshold.

 

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THE SIX-YEAR DELAY BETWEEN DEFENDANT’S SEXUAL-MISCONDUCT GUILTY PLEA AND THE SORA RISK-ASSESSMENT HEARING DID NOT DEPRIVE DEFENDANT OF HIS RIGHT TO DUE PROCESS OF LAW (CT APP).

The Court of Appeals, in a full-fledged opinion by Judge Garcia, over a two-judge concurrence, determined that the six-year delay between defendant’s guilty plea to sexual misconduct and the SORA risk-level assessment hearing did not deprive defendant of his right to due process of law:

Defendant pled guilty to one count of sexual misconduct, a sex offense requiring registration under the Sex Offender Registration Act (SORA). Nevertheless, defendant was not notified of his SORA registration requirements, and approximately six years passed from the time of his plea before this mistake was brought to the attention of the Board of Examiners of Sex Offenders. After a full, albeit delayed, SORA proceeding, defendant was designated a level one sex offender, the least restrictive designation available, with the required twenty-year registration period ordered nunc pro tunc from the date of his release. Defendant claims that the delay between his plea and his SORA hearing violated his substantive due process rights. We disagree and hold that defendant failed to make the required showing that the delay prejudiced his ability to present his case to the SORA court and for that reason, we affirm. People v Collier, 2026 NY Slip Op 00074, CtApp 1-8-26

Practice Point: Consult this opinion for a discussion of the substantive and procedural due process protections raised by a six-year delay in holding a SORA risk-level assessment hearing.

 

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A MARRIAGE WITHOUT FIRST OBTAINING A MARRIAGE LICENSE WILL BE DEEMED VALID IN NEW YORK IF THE MARRIAGE IS “SOLEMNIZED;” HERE THE CEREMONY PERFORMED BY THE COPTIC ORTHODOX CHURCH WAS DEEMED A “FAMILY BLESSING,” NOT A “MARRIAGE,” BECAUSE THE “SOLEMNIZATION” REQUIREMENTS WERE NOT MET (FIRST DEPT).

The First Department, in a full-fledged opinion by Justice Kern, determined the parties in this divorce proceeding had never been married:

In this action for divorce, we are asked to determine whether the parties are validly married under the New York Domestic Relations Law despite not obtaining a marriage license prior to their alleged wedding ceremony. Pursuant to Domestic Relations Law § 25, a marriage is not void for failure to obtain a marriage license if the marriage is solemnized. A marriage is solemnized under Domestic Relations Law § 12 when a couple solemnly declares in the presence of a clergyman, magistrate, or one-day marriage officiant and attending witness or witnesses that they take each other as spouses. Even when the parties do not make this solemn declaration that they take each other as spouses, a marriage will still be valid without a license pursuant to Domestic Relations Law § 12 when the marriage is solemnized in the manner used and practiced in the couple’s respective denomination. As we find that neither of these scenarios occurred, we hold that the parties are not validly married pursuant to the Domestic Relations Law.

On July 29, 2017, the parties took part in a baptism of their son at a Coptic Orthodox Church performed by Bishop Anba David of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of New York and New England and attended by the church’s priest, Father Gregory Saroufeem. After the baptism was completed, plaintiff was asked if she wished to be baptized into the Coptic Orthodox Church. She assented, and after plaintiff underwent certain preparations, the Bishop performed the baptism.

After the second baptism, plaintiff contends that the Bishop asked if she and defendant wished to be married, she and defendant agreed, and the Bishop performed an impromptu wedding ceremony. Defendant contends that the ceremony was a family blessing and not a marriage. It is undisputed that the parties did not have a marriage license, did not exchange rings, made no vows during the ceremony and did not execute a certificate of marriage, among other traditional requirements of the Coptic Church. Funti v Andrews, 2026 NY Slip Op 00012, First Dept 1-6-25

Practice Point: A marriage entered into without first obtaining a marriage license is valid in New York if the marriage is “solemnized.” Consult this opinion for a description of the :solemnization” requirements (which were not met here).

 

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